This month we turn to the reproductive process in trees, this process is the bit by which we all get to see and know a part of a tree from a very early age.

Be it an apple, walnut, acorn or pine cone, most children could recognise this part of the tree even if they did not know what tree it came from.

Animals and humans all benefit greatly from the reproductive process be it giving up its fruit so it will have its seed planted or growing an attractive flower with tasty nectar to attract a pollinator. Each tree has developed its own strategy to pass on its genes and the following piece will hopefully give you a basic understanding of how many achieve it.

All the tree needs to do is get its female flowers pollinated by its male flowers, grow a seed, and get that seed down to the ground for it to start growing another tree.

Most trees have both male and female flowers on the same tree; these are called monoecious (one house). If a tree has one type of flower on one tree it is called dioecious (two houses). The Yew, willow and gingko are common examples of dioecious trees. Identification of male or female trees is easier in the autumn when it is easier to see the difference. The female yew tree has the very distinctive (and poisonous) berries whereas the male has very small green balls which are very hard to spot.

As well as mono/dioecious trees are further divided into complete and incomplete flowers. A complete flower will have all of its parts including: petals, sepals, stamen and pistil. An incomplete flower is missing one or more of these parts. Finally as flower can be perfect (having both male and female parts) or imperfect (lacking either a stamen or pistil). Whatever the flower type is, it needs to get the pollen from the stamen to the pistil.

Pollination can be either by wind or by insects. A tree with insect pollinated flowers will typically have an attractive flower and a nice aroma to attract an insect to the flower and then entice the insect in with some delicious nectar so that the pollen can be passed on to the insect so it can take it to a female flower or another trees flower and pollinate it.

If the pollination is by wind then the tree will typically have long drooping flowers so that the wind can blow the pollen to another receptive flower. The birch is fine example of a wind pollinating tree.

Conifers use wind to pollinate their cones (they do not have flowers) and each cone is either male or a larger female cone. The wind blows the pollen from male to female, the male cone will fall off and the female cone will grow the seeds.

This process appears to be very complex and diverse and we could get lost in the intricacies of it all. Whatever it is it works, it is beautiful and happens every spring. The first we probably know about it is when we start to smell the wonderful aromas, see the beautiful flowers, watch the insects getting busy on a spring day or hear the sneezes of the hay fever sufferers!

Hopefully as you are reading this we are all starting to notice the first signs of spring and the cold dark days of winter are drifting away. Happy springtime to one and all!

The woody part of the tree – the stem (or trunk) branches and roots are what we turn to next. What is it made of and what use is it to us?

Wood has four main constituent parts, the xylem, the cambium, the phloem and the bark.

The xylem is the main part of the woody structure of the tree; they are the tubes that transport water around. As the tree grows wider, the older central tubes gum up and become redundant. This is called the heartwood; it gives the tree its strength and flexibility. The heartwood, once a tree is felled and left to dry out is the where the main use of the tree is. The wood of the English oak (Quercus robur) is used for furniture making, house building and boat building. Oak is also much valued as firewood as is ash (Fraxinus excelsior). The ash is highly valued as it can be burned green. This is because its moisture level when unseasoned (green) is roughly the same as seasoned oak logs (about 30% moisture level) Most wood can be seasoned and as long as it is burned in an appropriate place (log burners for anything sappy and likely to spit, open fires for well seasoned hardwood)

Between the xylem and the phloem is a divider, this is called the cambium. This is where the tree grows new xylem and phloem and is therefore responsible for the widening of the tree as it grows.

Then comes the phloem, this transports the sugars created in the leaves (using photosynthesis) around the tree. This sugary liquid we know as the sap. A substance which can be tapped from a tree (especially maples and birches) and has many uses – maple syrup is a fine example of this. Birch sap is wonderfully sweet too.

The outer layer of the tree is the bark. The bark protects the tree – from the elements, pests, diseases, fungal infection, it is tough and waterproof.  It can be one of the key factors in helping to identify a tree. Especially during the winter months when all we can see are the woody parts of the broadleaf trees. Most trees bark is highly individual. The London Plane (Platanus x hipanica) has a very distinctive bark – it looks almost like army camouflage – a patchy bark of greys and greens. The walnut (Juglans regia), on the other hand has a beautiful silvery bark. The bark of the cork oak is harvested to make cork.

These four main parts of the tree can be easily seen when a tree is cut and the stump is studied – rings are clearly visible each one representing a seasons growth of the tree, but as well as these, which grow up and down the tree, there are also cells that grow in lines radiating out from the centre tree to just below the bark. These are called Rays. Excess glucose which is produced by photosynthesis within the leaves is moved through the phloem, into the rays and converted to  starch or fat. These are used by the tree to help flower and fruit production in springtime and kept in reserve in times of stress (draught, loss of leaves etc).

All in all, the wood of the tree is a fascinating structure and one which is much more complicated than it at first seems. The next time you walk past a tree stump or you pick up a log, have a look at it, marvel at its beauty, be amazed that such a seemingly simple thing can be so complicated!

The leaf is the most iconic, most important part of the tree. In fact it is the lifeline for the tree. Without the leaf the tree would be dead and we would struggle to breath.

The leaf is the first port of call for identifying a tree. Generally speaking if the tree loses its leaves, it is a broadleaf tree, if not it is a conifer. Once we know this we can then go on further to identify the tree. Even if the tree has lost its leaves you can generally find fallen ones by the tree and begin to look further at the leaf. What shape is the leaf? How is the leaf structured? Most people would probably be able to identify an oak tree as it has a very iconic leaf shape. Even if you cannot tell a red oak from a turkey oak you would probably be able to look at its leaf and recognise the distinctive oak shape. An ash leaf is structured very differently from an oak but has an equally distinctive shape (a compound of many leaflets) and therefore is relatively easy to identify. Most people would also be able to tell the difference between an ash tree and a yew tree. In fact the conifers may be a harder group to differentiate the different species but there are a few general rules which make the process a little easier. For example, the pine needle will feel like a pin when you touch the end of it.

 But apart from helping us to identify the tree the leaf has a much more important function.

Without the leaf the tree would simply not function as a tree. It would be simply standing wood – great for insects, wildlife and for firewood but it would no longer be a tree. The leaf is the heart, the lungs, the life blood of the tree.

Using a process called evapotranspiration the leaf draws water up from the water table, through the roots and stem of the tree and out into the atmosphere via the leaf. A large oak tree can transpire 40,000 gallons of water a year. This process, in turn, brings up the nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium) the tree needs to nourish itself. As well as this vital function the leaf has a molecule in it called chlorophyll. This molecule absorbs sunlight and combines the water from the evapotranspiration and carbon dioxide (CO₂) to make sugar (carbohydrates). The sugars are the energy that the tree needs to grow, repair and reproduce. After this process oxygen is released back into the atmosphere as a waste product.

Simply put the leaf is integral to humans as well as the tree for without the process of photosynthesis (for which the tree is a major contributor) we would not be able to breathe.

As well as all these important factors the leaf is also used for many things: gardeners use it for feeding their plants; cooks use it for flavouring; herbalists for healing; poisoners for poisoning (!); artists for decorating and inspiration and tree huggers like me just like to look at them and study them!

Have a great new year and I hope you all get to turn over a new leaf!

Cedar trees belong to the pine families of trees. The biological name of this tree is Cedrus. They have needle like leaves and like all pine trees, they bear their seeds on scales clustered in cones. The cedar tree differs from various trees in the pine family, because of their four angled evergreen leaves borne on short side-branches

The three trees within the Cedrus group are:

Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani), Deodar (Cedrus deodar) and Atlas Cedar (Cedrus atlantica). The Atlas Cedar also has a variation called the Blue Atlas Cedar (Cedrus atlantica ‘Glauca’) which is a much more common variation.

There are other trees commonly known as cedars (eastern red, white, western red etc) but these are actually Thuja’s or Juniperus’. In this article we will not be looking at these.

Cedars are all, individually, very distinctive and beautiful trees. Though neither native nor deciduous they are remarkably popular. Of the three, the Cedar of Lebanon is probably the most striking with its pyramid shape and thick dark trunk.  The Blue Atlas is a more common garden tree and has a very distinctive blue/silvery leaves.

Care of the Cedar:

As long as the Cedar is planted in the right place for its eventual size (30-70 meters) the tree needs very little care – fertilising once a year if you must, ensure it does not get water logged or is not in a area prone to flooding and if you must prune, do so in the spring before growth starts. Any damaged or dying branches must be removed with clean cuts – any rough cuts will eventually damage the tree. They are a very hardy bunch of trees but they are prone to Armillaria root rot, white fungal bark infections, discoloured foliage, etc. Excess watering and fertilizing can kill your cedar.

Uses:

Cedars are grown as ornamental plants mainly, in ancient times Cedar wood has been used to build ships, even for Alexander the Great. It is said the King Solomon's temple was built with cedar wood. Cedar trees are also grown for their scented and decay resistant wood. Cedar wood and oils derived from it, can act as natural repellents to moths.

Mythology:

The Cedars of Lebanon are mentioned in the Bible over 70 times and used as symbols of the Messiah, and they were prized by historical figures such as Herod, Alexander, and Julius Caesar. They also have a mention in the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Osisris’ sarcophagus was said to have travelled down the Nile and rested in the trunk of a Cedar Tree in Lebanon. This tree was then said to be taken and used as a pillar to support a palace for the king of Byblos.

Local examples:

A very fine Cedar of Lebanon can be seen on Sheep Pen Lane in Steyning in a walled garden opposite the White Horse Pub. Further round the road to Mill Lane, in another walled garden is a very fine (yet smaller) Deodar. Both of these are clearly visible from the main roads.

One of the finest examples of the Cedar of Lebanon in this country can be found in Goodwood, planted in 1761 (along with many others) this survivor is storm damaged from the big storm of ’87 but is said to be magnificent!

The Gingko is a wonderful tree and another one of my favourite trees. It is unique tree as it is the only tree within its species (unlike the oak which has many different oaks there is only one Gingko – the biloba). It is also a living fossil – fossils have been found of modern day Gingko’s dating back to 270 million years ago. About two million years ago the tree was only to be found in restricted parts of China and was thought to be extinct for a period two thousand years ago.

The leaves are fan-shaped with veins radiating out into the leaf blade and sometimes bifurcating (splitting). This bifurcation giving the leaf a distinct two lobes, hence the name biloba. The leaves are green but turn to a very distinctive yellow before dropping off in the autumn

The tree will be either male or female with the male being more common producing cones and the rarer female produces small seeds (1.5 – 2cm long) which have a very distinctive rancid butter like smell. The Fruit itself is plum like which has a fleshy rind enclosing an edible, white nut.

The tree can be seen dotted around most towns as it is widely loved amongst tree lovers (despite its non native status). A fine example of the species can be found on the green near the library on Church Lane and a very fine one to be found along the twitten in Dog Lane in Steyning.

One of the oldest trees I have found was hidden in an overgrown garden in hove it was about fifty feet tall with a much fissured bark. The tree can be known to grow over 100 feet tall.

Medicinally the gingko is used for memory and concentration enhancement, it can be used as an anti vertigo agent.  It is also thought to improve circulation.

In eastern Asia the tree is often planted near Buddhist and Taoist temples. In the 11^th century the gingko was called Yin Hsing (Silver Apricot), also known as the “Grandfather-Grandchild Tree” as it takes three generations to mature.

The best advice for anyone with a gingko on their property is to leave well alone, the bark is very delicate and scars do not heal on larger branches, it is best to prune considerately only when the tree is young.

This month we will be looking at how to build a basic panel fence. We will look at digging the hole, fixing the post and attaching a panel to it. Easy really!

Tools:

·         A good spade – preferably a drain spade (a long, narrow spade) also known as a grafter.

·         A Post Hole Digger – also known as a pair of Spoons

·         Hammer

·         Nails

·         A spirit level

Materials:

·         2 x Posts (3”x3” of 4”x4” for even better longevity) about 1/3 as long as the panel you are fixing to it. For example if it is a 6 foot panel you will need an 8 foot long post

·         A fence panel

·         About 40kg of Ballast per hole

·         1/3 of a bag of cement per hole

 Firstly, the hardest part of the job, digging the hole. Choose where the fence is going to start and start to dig the hole. Using the Grafter, work away at the area you want the post to be, take this steady as it can be hard work -especially if you are in Steyning or the surrounding area where after a foots worth of digging you’ll hit the chalk and the flint! However if you live in Storrington, you are quids in, as your soil is all chalk and is really easy for hole digging!

Once you have worked some soil loose, get your spoons and shove them in to the loose soil and squeeze them together and lift out the soil and place to the front or behind the hole (don’t put it to the side as this is where your panel will be going! Repeat this process until you think you are at the required depth. You can make this easier, by marking the post at the height of the panel and when it reaches ground level, you are there or if not can clearly see how far you have left!

Once you have got it to the required height, put the post in the ground and quickly check with the spirit level that the post will go level in both directions and is still the right place.  If all is right and you are happy, secure the post in place with some hardcore (if you have any lying around) and then mix up your cement and ballast. I prefer a dry mix and add water in the hole, others like to mix it up wet. Mix really well (another hard job!) and then start to fill the hole. Keep checking the level of the post as you go and tamp down the mix regularly.

If you are doing a row of panels, dig the last hole, place a string line between to the two and place each hole in line with this to ensure a nice straight line. Now you are ready for the next hole. Place the panel next to the post to work out where the hole will go, dig the hole, check the post will go in level and then place the panel back to ensure it is in the right place again. If all is right, fix the hole in place and then attach the panel in the middle of the post and nail it in place (try and support the post as you nail it in and recheck the cement mix after to ensure it is still solid and re-tamp down if necessary.

Repeat process until the fence is complete. I would expect two people to build a seven to nine panel fence in a day, longer if there are old panels to remove and experience is limited!

Good luck with your fencing projects, if you have any questions or queries regarding fencing projects, feel free to email me at treedom23@yahoo.co.uk or ask a question on my facebook page which is: www.facebook.com/treedomtreesurgery

Simon Zec

www.treedomsussex.co.uk

Now that the sun is finally emerging from behind winter’s clouds, the sap starts to rise, the birds start to nest and so the time to work on trees comes to rest for a while. Whilst the season of hedge cutting, lawn mowing and fencing approaches, I also get a chance to grow vegetables in my garden.

This year we decided to expand. We needed a new raised bed. So an afternoon in the sun beckoned.

Materials:

• Spade
• Fork
• Two 3 metre gravel boards*
• Four feet of two by two+
• Screws
• Compost

Prepare the ground:

You need to make sure that the ground is cleared of all bulbs and weeds and ensure that what will grow will be what I want to grow there. So after an intensive digging and turning session the ground was ready.

Prepare the materials:

Next I cut one metre off each of my gravel boards and cut my two by two down in to four lengths of about a foot each.

Erect the bed:

• Screw two bits of two by two to each end of one of the longer bits of gravel board
• Screw the two shorter pieces on each end trying to ensure they are both at ninety degrees to the longer piece
• On the opposite ends of the short bits, screw on the last two bits of two by two
• Join the final 2m length of gravel board to complete to rectangle.
• Dig four holes in the ground where the corners will go
• Place the bed in position
• Back fill the holes at each corner and stamp it down to reduce any movement

Fill the bed:

A quick pop to the garden centre for some compost – I prefer the organic, peat free vegetable compost at around £6 per bag – about three filled the bed up and the bed was ready to sow – a job for next weekend. A few pea sticks and short bits of bamboo strategically placed around the edges to put off the cats from accessing it and job done.

The whole thing probably took no more than three hours and cost around about forty pounds. I plan to use this bed for carrots this year.

I will sow two rows of seeds every couple of weeks. The rows are 15cm apart and 1cm deep. I sparingly sowed the seeds (about one every cm), covered them up and watered them well. Once the seedlings start to show, thin them out further. With my 2m long bed I should get 10 rows of carrots. This will hopefully ensure we are well stocked with delicious fresh carrots for the summer.

*these are lengths of wood six inches high and only one inch thick, so they are fairly cheap to use (about £5 per piece)

+ a two inch by two inch length of wood

You may be aware that a consultation period has begun by the government with regards to selling off our woodlands. If you could spare some time to offer your opinions or wish to find out more on this subject then the following websites are good places to visit:

www.38degrees.org.uk

www.nationaltrust.org.uk

If you actually wish to take part in the consultation process, then the DEFRA website has an online consultation with clear guidance on how to complete it. The website is: www.forestry.gov.uk/england-pfeconsultation

Latin: Betula pendula

Common name: Silver Birch

The Silver Birch is a native British deciduous tree and easily identified by its silvery/white papery bark with grey knobbly bumps at the base of the tree on older specimens. It can give the appearance of being a tall tree (it can grow up to thirty meters tall) because its branches grow sharply upwards and curve downwards at the tip – hence the name “pendula” meaning hanging/pendulous.

It has a small, wedge shaped, toothy leaf which is found on alternate sides of the stalk.

The birch has catkins which can be seen on the male tree, as the leaves arrive, the catkins lengthen and hang and the wind scatters the pollen to the smaller and more upright female trees. The female catkins are smaller but wider and hang heavy until they disintegrate in late summer/early autumn releasing tiny winged seedlings.

It is a great wood for most woodworking projects, as it is very easy to work with and makes good handles and toys. Its hardwearing nature meant that the Lancashire cotton industry used it for bobbins, spools and reels. The wood itself can also be used for firewood.

Many native traditions have used the Birch bark for building canoes and cooking pots. The bark has 3% tannic acid content and therefore was used in the leather industry for tanning. It also has high oil content and when gently removed fresh from the tree the bark makes a very affective fire lighter.

The Birch’s sap can be tapped quite simply and can easily be turned into wine or cordial. One of the most recognisable reuses of the Birch is use of the twigs in witches’ broomsticks.

But for most of us the tree makes an excellent ornamental garden tree, as it will not dominate a garden but will add height, colour and interest to a garden. The tree itself will need very little management, but one if you are going to have any tree surgery upon your Birch, make sure the work is during the dormant period, because the tree will “bleed” its sap profusely if cut at other times. As well as this being a waste of the trees sap it also leaves the tree vulnerable to disease.

From a tree surgeons point of view, the tree is very difficult to reduce as to leave a freshly pruned Birch looking natural and well shaped is a difficult and skilled procedure.